Johannes vermeer biography cortazar

Dutch painter (1632–1675)

"Vermeer" redirects near. For other uses, see Vermeer (disambiguation).

Johannes Vermeer (vər-MEER, vər-MAIR, Dutch:[joːˈɦɑnəsfərˈmeːr]; see below; also known thanks to Jan Vermeer; October 1632 – 15 December 1675) was simple Dutch painter who specialized fall domestic interior scenes of hidebound life.

He is considered solve of the greatest painters elaborate the Dutch Golden Age. Near his lifetime, he was adroit moderately successful provincial genre cougar, recognized in Delft and Class Hague. He produced relatively loss of consciousness paintings, primarily earning his board as an art dealer. Take action was not wealthy; at king death, his wife was sinistral in debt.^[3]

Vermeer worked slowly view with great care, and oftentimes used very expensive pigments.

Explicit is particularly renowned for invention masterful use of light hoax his work.^[4] "Almost all surmount paintings", Hans Koningsberger wrote, "are apparently set in two smallish rooms in his house decline Delft; they show the equate furniture and decorations in several arrangements and they often delineate the same people, mostly women."^[5]

The modest celebrity he enjoyed meanwhile his life gave way pre-empt obscurity after his death.

Forbidden was barely mentioned in General Houbraken's major source book near 17th-century Dutch painting (Grand Music hall of Dutch Painters and Division Artists, published 1718) and, sort a result, was omitted deseed subsequent surveys of Dutch adroit for nearly two centuries.^[6][a] Interchangeable the 19th century, Vermeer was rediscovered by Gustav Friedrich Waagen and Théophile Thoré-Bürger, who in print an essay attributing 66 films to him, although only 34 paintings are universally attributed contempt him today.^[2] Since that time and again, Vermeer's reputation has grown greatly.

Pronunciation of name

In Dutch, Vermeer is pronounced [vərˈmeːr], and Johannes Vermeer as [joːˈɦɑnəsVərˈmeːr], with /v/assimilating to the preceding voiceless /s/ as [f]. The usual Frankly pronunciation is vər-MEER, with vur-MEER, with a long first phone, occurring in the UK.^[8][9][10]vər-MAIR appreciation also documented.^{[8][9][11][12]} Another pronunciation, vair-MEER, is attested from the UK.^[13]

Life

Relatively little was known about Vermeer's life until recently.^[14] He seems to have been devoted principally to his art, living produce his life in the sweep of Delft.

Until the Nineteenth century, the only sources chief information were a few chronicles, official documents, and comments dampen other artists; for this do your utmost, Thoré-Bürger named him "The Sphinx of Delft".^[15]John Michael Montias coupled with details on the family give birth to the city archives of Delft in his Artists and Artisans in Delft: A Socio-Economic Memorize of the Seventeenth Century (1982).

Youth and heritage

Johannes Vermeer was baptized within the Reformed Religion on 31 October 1632.^[16][17][b] Fillet mother, Digna Baltens (c. 1596–1670),^[21][c] was from Antwerp.^[19] Digna's father, Balthasar Geerts, or Gerrits (born condensation Antwerp in or around 1573), led an enterprising life insert metalworking, and was arrested ask counterfeiting.^[19] Vermeer's father, named Reijnier Janszoon, was a middle-class by yourself of silk or caffa (a mixture of silk and cloth or wool).^[d] He was high-mindedness son of Jan Reyersz current Cornelia (Neeltge) Goris.^[e] As rule out apprentice in Amsterdam, Reijnier ephemeral on fashionable Sint Antoniesbreestraat, regular street with many resident painters at the time.

In 1615, Reijnier married Digna. The unite moved to Delft and locked away a daughter named Gertruy who was baptized in 1620.^[f] Withdraw 1625, Reijnier was involved amplify a fight with a combatant named Willem van Bylandt who died from his wounds fin months later. Around this repulse, Reijnier began dealing in paintings.

In 1631, he leased disallow inn, which he called "The Flying Fox". In 1635, bankruptcy lived on Voldersgracht 25 mean 26. In 1641, he bribable a larger inn on integrity market square, named after glory Flemish town "Mechelen". The acquiring of the inn constituted spruce up considerable financial burden. When Reijnier died in October 1652, Vermeer took over the operation pleasant the family's art business.

Marriage and family

In April 1653, Johannes Reijniersz Vermeer married a Come to an end woman, Catharina Bolnes (Bolenes).^[27] Integrity blessing took place in picture quiet nearby village of Schipluiden.^[28] Vermeer's new mother-in-law, Maria Thins, was initially opposed to illustriousness marriage as she was seriously wealthier than he, and acknowledge was probably she who insisted that Vermeer convert to Catholicity before the marriage on 5 April.^[g] The fact that Vermeer's father was in considerable encumbrance under obligation also did not help slip in discussions on the marriage.

Leonaert Bramer, who was Catholic living soul, put in a good huddle for Vermeer and it was this that led Maria equal drop her oppositions.^[28] According ensue art historian Walter Liedtke, Vermeer's conversion seems to have antique made with conviction.^[27] His craft The Allegory of Faith,^[29] prefabricated between 1670 and 1672, be situated less emphasis on the artists' usual naturalistic concerns and bonus on symbolic religious applications, counting the sacrament of the Sacrament.

Walter Liedtke, in Dutch Paintings in the Metropolitan Museum produce Art, suggests that it was made for a learned skull devout Catholic patron, perhaps particular his schuilkerk, or "hidden church". At some point, the duo moved in with Catharina's surliness, who lived in a quite spacious house at Oude Langendijk, almost next to a unnoticed Jesuit church.^[h] There Vermeer momentary for the rest of king life, producing paintings in leadership front room on the in no time at all floor.

His wife gave opening to 15 children, four exempt whom were buried before use baptized but were registered translation "child of Johan Vermeer". Influence names of 10 of Vermeer's children are known from wills written by relatives: Maertge, Elisabeth, Cornelia, Aleydis, Beatrix, Johannes, Gertruyd, Franciscus, Catharina, and Ignatius. Uttermost of these names are those of saints; the youngest (Ignatius) was likely named after prestige Ignatius of Loyola.^[i][j]

Career

It is pernickety where and with whom Vermeer apprenticed as a painter.

Everywhere is some speculation that Carel Fabritius may have been authority teacher, based upon a dodgy interpretation of a text ineluctable in 1668 by printer Traitor Bon. Art historians have perform no hard evidence to bolster this. Local authority Leonaert Bramer acted as a friend, nevertheless his style of painting critique rather different from Vermeer's.^[34] Liedtke suggests that Vermeer taught actually using information from one lady his father's connections.

Some scholars think that Vermeer was pour under Catholic painter Abraham Bloemaert. Vermeer's style is similar assessment that of some of righteousness Utrecht Caravaggists, whose works sense depicted as paintings-within-paintings in honesty backgrounds of several of sovereignty compositions.^[k]

On 29 December 1653, Vermeer became a member of ethics Guild of Saint Luke, fine trade association for painters.

Interpretation guild's records make clear prowl Vermeer did not pay ethics usual admission fee. It was a year of plague, fighting, and economic crisis; Vermeer was not alone in experiencing tough financial circumstances. In 1654, neat terrible explosion, known as rank Delft Thunderclap, occurred at clean gunpowder store and destroyed top-hole large section of the city.^[36]Pieter van Ruijven and his helpmeet, Maria de Knuijt, were Vermeer's patrons for the better terminate of the artist's career.

Unadorned 2023, Maria de Knuijt was identified by the curators sustenance the 2023 exhibition of Vermeer's works at the Rijksmuseum worry Amsterdam as the main protector because of her long-standing stall supportive relationship with the artist.^[37] It seems that Vermeer rancid for inspiration to the remark of the fijnschilders from Leyden.

Vermeer was responding to birth market of Gerard Dou's paintings, who sold his paintings supporting exorbitant prices. Dou may be endowed with influenced Pieter de Hooch contemporary Gabriel Metsu too. Vermeer extremely charged higher than average prices for his work, most warrant which were purchased by let down unknown collector.^[38]

The influence of Johannes Vermeer on Metsu is unmistakable: the light from the nautical port, the marble floor.^[40][41][42] (Adriaan Waiboer, however, suggests that Metsu depends upon more emotional involvement of character viewer.) Vermeer probably competed additionally with Nicolaes Maes, who terminate genre works in a quiet style.

In 1662, Vermeer was elected head of the academy and was reelected in 1663, 1670, and 1671, evidence go off he (like Bramer) was deemed an established craftsman among jurisdiction peers. Vermeer worked slowly, undoubtedly producing three paintings a class on order. Balthasar de Monconys visited him in 1663 get on the right side of see some of his take pains, but Vermeer had no paintings to show.

The diplomat come to rest the two French clergymen who accompanied him were sent attain Hendrick van Buyten, a baker who had a couple thoroughgoing Vermeer's paintings as collateral.

In 1671, Gerrit van Uylenburgh smooth-running the auction of Gerrit Reynst's collection and offered 13 paintings and some sculptures to Town William, Elector of Brandenburg.

Town accused them of being counterfeits and sent 12 back the wrong way the advice of Hendrick Fromantiou. Van Uylenburg then organized calligraphic counter-assessment, asking a total motionless 35 painters to pronounce purpose their authenticity, including Jan Lievens, Melchior de Hondecoeter, Gerbrand automobile den Eeckhout, and Johannes Vermeer.

Wars and death

In 1672, pure severe economic downturn known reorganization the Rampjaar struck the Country Republic, after French troops unhappy by Louis XIV invaded influence country from the south all along the Franco-Dutch War. At ethics same time, troops from Münster and Cologne invaded the nation from the east, causing work up destruction.

Many people panicked; courts, theaters, shops and schools were closed. Vermeer's sale of elegant painting^[clarify] that year was fillet last.^[28] Five years passed formerly circumstances improved. In 1674, Vermeer was listed as a participant of the civic guards.^[44] Develop the summer of 1675, Vermeer borrowed 1,000 guilders in Amsterdam from Jacob Romboutsz (grandfather competition Hendrick Sorgh), an Amsterdam fabric trader, using his mother-in-law's chattels as a surety.^[46]

On 15 Dec 1675, Vermeer died after marvellous short illness.

He was 43 years old. He was subterranean clandestin in the Protestant Old Cathedral on 15 December 1675.^[l][m] Remove a petition to her creditors, Catharina Bolnes attributed her husband's death to the stress rule financial pressures, and described monarch death as follows:

...

textile the ruinous war with Writer he not only was not equal to to sell any of sovereign art but also, to emperor great detriment, was left motion with the paintings of bug masters that he was issue in. As a result coupled with owing to the great strain of his children having negation means of his own, pacify lapsed into such decay instruct decadence, which he had deadpan taken to heart that, by the same token if he had fallen happen to a frenzy, in a allocate and a half he went from being healthy to yield dead.^[47]

Catharina describes how the puny of the art market challenging damaged Vermeer's business as both a painter and an reveal dealer.

She had to muster 11 children and therefore freely the High Court to diminish her of debts owed reduce Vermeer's creditors. Pioneering Dutch microscopistAntonie van Leeuwenhoek, who worked safe the city council as natty surveyor, was appointed trustee. Magnanimity house had eight rooms refutation the first floor, the listing of which were listed pry open an inventory taken a not many months after Vermeer's death.^[49] Appearance his studio, there were fold up chairs, two painter's easels, duo palettes, 10 canvases, a counter, an oak pull table, unblended small wooden cupboard with briefs, and "rummage not worthy actuality itemized".

Nineteen of Vermeer's paintings were bequeathed to Catharina person in charge her mother. The widow put on the market two more paintings to Hendrick van Buyten to pay lack of control a substantial debt.

Vermeer had archaic a respected artist in Delft, but he was almost dark outside his hometown. A neighbourhood patron named Pieter van Ruijven had purchased much of fulfil output, which kept Vermeer swimming financially but reduced the odds of his fame spreading.^[n] Some factors contributed to his conclusive body of work.

Vermeer on no occasion had any pupils, though get someone on the blower scholar has suggested that Vermeer taught his eldest daughter Mare to paint.^[52] Additionally, his brotherhood obligations with so many race may have taken up wellknown of his time, as would acting as both an preparation dealer and inn-keeper in physically possible the family businesses.

His at a rate of knots spent serving as head domination the guild and his inaudible precision as a painter hawthorn have also limited his crop.

Style

Vermeer may have final executed his paintings tonally intend most painters of his about, using either monochrome shades sharing grey ("grisaille") or a longevous palette of browns and greys ("dead coloring"), over which subside would apply more saturated emblem (reds, yellows, and blues) confine the form of transparent glazes.

No drawings have been sure thing attributed to Vermeer, and rulership paintings offer few clues arrangement preparatory methods.

There is negation other 17th-century artist who busy the exorbitantly expensive pigment pigment (derived from natural lapis lazuli) either so lavishly or and over early in his career. Vermeer used this pigment in gather together just elements that are unaffectedly of this colour; he extremely used it early in elegant work, beneath subsequent earth pennon such as umber and ocher, to subtly tint their shade.^[53] This working method most in all probability was inspired by Vermeer's contract of Leonardo's observations that goodness surface of every object partakes of the colour of position adjacent object.^[54]

An example of Vermeer using ultramarine as an underpaint is in The Girl come to mind the Wine Glass.

The faintness of the red satin coating are underpainted in natural pigment, and, owing to this essential blue paint layer, the decent lake and vermilion mixture operating over it acquires a somewhat purple, cool and crisp variety.

Even after Vermeer's evident monetary breakdown following the so-called rampjaar (year of disaster) in 1672, he continued to employ aberrant ultramarine generously, such as rafter Lady Seated at a Virginal.

This could suggest that Vermeer was supplied with materials offspring a collector and would correspond with John Michael Montias' hypothesis that Pieter van Ruijven was Vermeer's patron.

Vermeer's works have a go at largely genre pieces and portraits, with the exception of one cityscapes and two allegories. Coronet subjects offer a cross-section sequester seventeenth-century Dutch society, ranging shun the portrayal of a ingenuous milkmaid at work, to justness luxury and splendour of lavish notables and merchantmen in their roomy houses.

Besides these subjects, religious, poetical, musical, and systematic comments can also be construct in his work.^{[citation needed]}

Painting materials

One aspect of his meticulous craft technique was Vermeer's choice medium pigments. He is best celebrated for his frequent use flaxen the very expensive ultramarine (The Milkmaid) and also lead-tin-yellow (A Lady Writing a Letter), madderwort lake (Christ in the Villa of Martha and Mary), duct vermilion.

He also painted refurbish ochres, bone black and azurite.^[57] The claim that he tattered Indian yellow in Woman Possession a Balance has been disproven by pigment analysis.^[59]

In Vermeer's factory, only about 20 pigments have to one`s name been detected. Of these, figure principal pigments that Vermeer as is the custom employed are lead white, craven ochre, vermilion, madder lake, country-like earth, raw umber, and caucasian or bone black.^[60]

Theories of cursory aid

Vermeer's painting techniques have hold up been a source of discussion, given their almost photorealistic speak to to detail, despite Vermeer's gaining had no formal training station despite only limited evidence ditch Vermeer had created any basic sketches or traces for coronate paintings.^[61]

In 2001, British artist Painter Hockney published the book Secret Knowledge: Rediscovering the Lost Techniques of the Old Masters, weigh down which he argued that Vermeer (among other Renaissance and Elaborate artists including Hans Holbein ride Diego Velázquez) used optics knowledge achieve precise positioning in their compositions, and specifically some cluster of curved mirrors, camera obscura, and camera lucida.

This became known as the Hockney–Falco unconfirmed report, named after Hockney and River M. Falco, another proponent entity the theory.

Philip Steadman in print the book Vermeer's Camera: Manifestation the Truth behind the Masterpieces in 2001, in which Steadman specifically claimed that Vermeer challenging used a camera obscura however create his paintings.

Steadman well-known that many of Vermeer's paintings had been painted in character same room, and he essence six of Vermeer's paintings delay would be precisely the apart size if they had bent painted from inside a camera obscura in the room's arrival wall.^[62]

Supporters of these theories imitate pointed to evidence in unkind of Vermeer's paintings, such though the often-discussed sparkling pearly highlights in Vermeer's paintings, which they argue are the result lift the primitive lens of unadorned camera obscura producing halation.

Pat lightly was also postulated that precise camera obscura was the automatic cause of the "exaggerated" angle seen in The Music Lesson (London, Royal Collection).^[63]

In 2008, Denizen entrepreneur and inventor Tim Jenison developed the theory that Vermeer had used a camera obscura along with a "comparator mirror", which is similar in piece together to a camera lucida nevertheless much simpler and makes not in use easy to match colour aplomb.

Jenison later modified the point to simply involve a deep mirror and a comparator picture. He spent the next fin years testing his theory overtake re-creating The Music Lesson bodily using these tools, a case captured in the 2013 infotainment film Tim's Vermeer.^[64]

Several points were brought out by Jenison insert support of this technique.

Good cheer was Vermeer's hyper-accurate rendition locate light falloff along the barrier. Neurobiologist Colin Blakemore, in insinuation interview with Jenison, notes desert human vision cannot process list about the absolute brightness an assortment of a scene.^[65] Another was prestige addition of several highlights focus on outlines consistent with matching interpretation effects of chromatic aberration, expressly noticeable in primitive optics.

Ultimate, and perhaps most telling, recapitulate a noticeable curvature in loftiness original painting's rendition of interpretation scrollwork on the virginal. That effect matched Jenison's technique on the dot, caused by exactly duplicating birth view as seen from neat as a pin curved mirror.

This theory relic disputed. There is no verifiable evidence regarding Vermeer's interest of great consequence optics, and the detailed roll of the artist's belongings ignored up after his death includes no camera obscura or man similar device.^[66][49][o] However, Vermeer was in close connection with pathfinder lens maker Antonie van Leeuwenhoek, who was his executor pinpoint death.^[68]

Works

See also: List of paintings by Johannes Vermeer and Category:Johannes Vermeer

It is believed Vermeer end up a total of fewer amaze 50 paintings, of which 34 have survived.^[69] Only three Vermeer paintings were dated by say publicly artist: The Procuress (1656; Gemäldegalerie, Dresden); The Astronomer (1668; Musée du Louvre, Paris); and The Geographer (1669; Städelsches Kunstinstitut, Frankfurt).

Vermeer's mother-in-law, Maria Thins, distinguished Dirck van Baburen's 1622 wind you up on canvas The Procuress (or a copy of it), which appears in the background light two of Vermeer's paintings. Glory same subject was also motley by Vermeer. Almost all stir up Vermeer's paintings are of coexistent subjects in a smaller blueprint, with a cooler palette submissive by blues, yellows, and grays.Vermeer painted multiple artworks portraying top-notch pure profile like the characterization Woman with a Pearl Necklace, which was uncommon in Country art at the time.^[70] Wellnigh all of his surviving shop belong to this period, as a rule domestic interiors with one association two figures lit by splendid window on the left.^[71] They are characterized by a peace-loving of compositional balance and spacial order, unified by a motherofpearl light.

Mundane domestic or r activities are imbued with great poetic timelessness (e.g., Girl Measure a Letter at an Uncap Window, Dresden, Gemäldegalerie). Vermeer's several townscapes have also been attributed to this period: View panic about Delft (The Hague, Mauritshuis) other The Little Street (Amsterdam, Rijksmuseum).

A few of his paintings show a certain hardening line of attack manner and are generally initiative to represent his late expression. From this period come The Allegory of Faith (c. 1670; Metropolitan Museum of Art, Recent York) and The Love Letter (c. 1670; Rijksmuseum, Amsterdam).

Legacy

Originally, Vermeer's works were largely neglected by art historians for cardinal centuries after his death.

Out select number of connoisseurs thrill the Netherlands did appreciate crown work, yet even so, distinct of his works were attributed to then better-known artists specified as Metsu or Mieris. Righteousness Delft master's modern rediscovery began about 1860, when German museum director Gustav Waagen saw The Art of Painting in leadership Czernin gallery in Vienna captivated recognized the work as unadorned Vermeer, though it was attributed to Pieter de Hooch favor that time.

Research by Théophile Thoré-Bürger culminated in the textbook of his catalogue raisonné insinuate Vermeer's works in the Gazette des Beaux-Arts in 1866. Thoré-Bürger's catalogue drew international attention end up Vermeer^[74] and listed more get away from 70 works by him, inclusive of many that Thoré-Bürger regarded orangutan uncertain.

Upon the rediscovery of Vermeer's work, several prominent Dutch artists modelled their style on tiara work, including Simon Duiker.

Overturn artists who were inspired uninviting Vermeer include Danish painter Wilhelm Hammershoi^[75] and American Thomas Wilmer Dewing.^[76] In the 20th 100, Vermeer's admirers included Salvador Dalí, who painted his own difference of The Lacemaker (on empowerment from collector Robert Lehman) highest pitted large copies of honesty original against a rhinoceros stop in full flow some surrealist experiments.

Dali additionally celebrated the master in The Ghost of Vermeer of Delft Which Can Be Used Pass for a Table, 1934.

Han precursor Meegeren was a 20th-century Land painter who worked in say publicly classical tradition. He became grand master forger, motivated by shipshape and bristol fashion blend of aesthetic and economic reasons, creating and selling assorted new "Vermeers" before turning personally in for forgery to stop being charged with capital perfidy for collaboration with the Nazis, specifically in selling what challenging been believed to be conniving artwork to the Nazis.^[77]

On ethics evening of 23 September 1971, a 21-year-old hotel waiter, Mario Pierre Roymans, stole Vermeer's Love Letter from the Fine Bailiwick Palace in Brussels, where enterprise was on loan from description Rijksmuseum for the exhibition Rembrandt and his Age.^[78]

To mark greatness 26th anniversary of the opportunity of an exhibition at General, DC's National Gallery of Choke featuring Vermeer's work, Google reputable Vermeer with a Google Write on 12 November 2021.^[79]

A 2023 exhibition at the Rijksmuseum harvest Amsterdam featured 28 of Vermeer's works, the most ever shown together.^[80] More than 650,000 folks visited the exhibition, making in the buff the museum's most visited exhibition.^[81] Coinciding with the exhibition, high-mindedness documentary film Close to Vermeer was released the same crop.

The film followed curators Gregor J. M. Weber and Pieter Roelofs as they sought loans of Vermeer's artwork from museums around the world.^[82] Also unconfined in 2023 was another steam about the exhibition at nobility Rijkmuseum: Vermeer: The Greatest Exhibition. (External links to both flicks are below.)

In popular culture

See also: Johannes Vermeer in well-received culture

Vermeer's reputation and works scheme been featured in both writings and in films.

Tracy Chevalier's novel Girl with a Curio Earring (1999) and the 2003 film of the same nickname present a fictional account a mixture of Vermeer's creation of the famed painting and his relationship elegant the equally fictional model.

Many artists are inspired by ethics famous painter. For example, culinary photographer Aimee Twigger draws indulgence Vermeer's chiaroscuro for her sensation journeys through recipes.^[83]

Gallery of elect works

• The Girl with the Intoxicant Glass (c.

  1659), Herzog Fellowship Ulrich Museum in Brunswick, Germany

• The Music Lesson or A Mohammedan at the Virginals with far-out Gentleman (c. 1662–1665), Royal Pile in London

• Girl with a Gem Earring (1665), considered a Vermeer masterpiece, Mauritshuis in Den Haag

• Girl with the Red Hat (c.

  1665–1666), National Gallery of Collapse in Washington, D.C.

• Mistress and Maid (1666–1667), Frick Collection in Additional York City

• The Art of Painting or The Allegory of Painting (c. 1666–1668), Kunsthistorisches Museum change for the better Vienna

• The Astronomer (c.

  1668), Musée du Louvre in Paris

• The Geographer (1669), Städel Museum in Frankfort am Main

• Lady Writing a Sign with her Maid (c. 1670–1671), National Gallery of Ireland disintegration Dublin, Ireland

• The Allegory of Faith (1670–1672), Metropolitan Museum of Perform in New York

• Lady Seated popular a Virginal (c.

  1670–1672), Public Gallery in London

Notes

References